https://www.
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https://www.c-span.org/video/?167420-1/1621-thanksgiving
Historical context[edit]
The Pilgrims who arrived on the
Mayflower and founded
Plymouth Plantation expended great effort forging friendship and peace with the Indians around
Cape Cod. They traveled long distances to make peace with
Massasoit, chief of the
Wampanoag tribe, and Governor
William Bradford made a gift of his prized red horse coat upon seeing that the chief admired it. Yet over the next 50 years, frictions and misunderstandings multiplied as wave after wave of Puritans and non-religious "strangers" (fortune-seekers not motivated by religion) kept arriving, often oblivious to the fragile peace carefully woven since the earliest arrivals. By 1675, the early efforts at friendship failed.
Plymouth Colony was established in 1620 with significant early help from local Indians, particularly
Squanto and Massasoit. Subsequent colonists founded
Salem,
Boston, and many small towns around
Massachusetts Bay between 1628 and 1640, during a time of increased English immigration, as well as towns such as
Windsor, Connecticut (est. 1633),
Newbury, Massachusetts (est. 1635),
Hartford, Connecticut (est. 1636),
Springfield, Massachusetts (est. 1636),
Northampton, Massachusetts (est. 1654), and
Providence, Rhode Island (est. 1636). The colonists progressively expanded throughout the territories of the several
Algonquian-speaking tribes in the region. Prior to King Philip's War, tensions fluctuated between Indian tribes and the colonists, but relations were generally peaceful.
[6]
The
Rhode Island,
Plymouth,
Massachusetts Bay,
Connecticut, and
New Haven colonies each developed separate relations with the
Wampanoags,
Nipmucks,
Narragansetts,
Mohegans,
Pequots, and other tribes of New England, whose territories historically had differing boundaries. Many of the neighboring tribes had been traditional competitors and enemies. As the colonial population increased, the New Englanders expanded their settlements along the region's coastal plain and up the
Connecticut River valley. By 1675, they had established a few small towns in the interior between Boston and the Connecticut River settlements.
[citation needed]
The
Wampanoag tribe under Metacomet's leadership had entered into an agreement with the Plymouth Colony and believed that they could rely on the colony for protection. However, in the decades preceding the war, it became clear to them that the treaty did not mean that the Colonists were not allowed to settle in new territories.
[6]
Throughout the Northeast, the Indians had suffered severe population losses as a result of pandemics of
smallpox,
spotted fever,
typhoid, and
measles starting in about 1618, two years before the first colony at Plymouth had been settled.
[14]
Failure of diplomacy[edit]
Metacomet became
sachem of the
Pokanoket and Grand Sachem of the
Wampanoag Confederacy in 1662 after the death of his older brother Grand Sachem
Wamsutta (called "Alexander" by the colonists), who had succeeded their father
Massasoit (d. 1661) as chief. Metacomet was well known to the colonists before his ascension as paramount chief to the Wampanoags, but he distrusted the colonists.
The Plymouth colonists had passed laws making it illegal to have commerce with the Wampanoags.
[citation needed] They learned that Wamsutta had sold a parcel of land to
Roger Williams, so Governor
Josiah Winslow had Wamsutta arrested, even though Wampanoags who lived outside of colonist jurisdiction were not accountable to Plymouth Colony laws. Metacomet began negotiating with the other
Algonquian tribes against the Plymouth Colony soon after the death of his father and his brother.
[15]
Population[edit]
The population of New England colonists totaled about 80,000 people. They lived in 110 towns, of which 64 were in the Massachusetts Bay colony, which then included the southwestern portion of Maine. The towns had about 16,000 men of military age who were almost all part of the militia, as universal training was prevalent in all
colonial New England towns. Many towns had built strong garrison houses for defense, and others had stockades enclosing most of the houses. All of these were strengthened as the war progressed. Some poorly populated towns were abandoned if they did not have enough men to defend them.
Each town had local militias based on all eligible men who had to supply their own arms. Only those who were too old, too young, disabled, or clergy were excused from military service. The militias were usually only minimally trained and initially did relatively poorly against the warring Indians, until more effective training and tactics could be devised. Joint forces of militia volunteers and volunteer Indian allies were found to be the most effective. The officers were usually elected by popular vote of the militia members.
[citation needed] The Indian allies of the colonists numbered about 1,000 from the
Mohegans and
Praying Indians, with about 200 warriors.
[16]
By 1676, the regional Indian population had decreased to about 10,000 (exact numbers are unavailable), largely because of epidemics. These included about 4,000 Narragansetts of western Rhode Island and eastern Connecticut, 2,400
Nipmucks of central and western Massachusetts, and 2,400 combined in the Massachusett and Pawtucket tribes living around Massachusetts Bay and extending northwest to Maine. The Wampanoags and Pokanokets of Plymouth and eastern Rhode Island are thought to have numbered fewer than 1,000. About one in four were considered to be warriors. By then, the Indians had almost universally adopted steel knives, tomahawks, and
flintlock muskets as their weapons. The various tribes had no common government. They had distinct cultures and often warred among themselves,
[17] although they all spoke related languages from the
Algonquian family.
The trial[edit]
John Sassamon was an Indian convert to Christianity, commonly referred to as a "
praying Indian." He played a key role as a "cultural mediator," negotiating with both colonists and Indian while belonging to neither party. He was an early graduate of
Harvard College and served as a translator and adviser to Metacomet. He reported to the governor of
Plymouth Colony that Metacomet planned to gather allies for Indian attacks on widely dispersed colonial settlements.
[19]:221
Metacomet was brought before a public court, where court officials admitted that they had no proof but warned that they would confiscate Wampanoag land and guns if they had any further reports that he was conspiring to start a war. Not long after, Sassamon's body was found in the ice-covered
Assawompset Pond, and Plymouth Colony officials arrested three Wampanoags on the testimony of an Indian witness, including one of Metacomet's counselors. A jury that included six Indian elders convicted the men of Sassamon's murder, and they were executed by hanging on June 8, 1675
(O.S.) at Plymouth.
Southern theater, 1675[edit]
Raid on Swansea[edit]
A band of
Pokanokets attacked several isolated homesteads in the small Plymouth colony settlement of
Swansea on June 20, 1675.
[20] They laid siege to the town, then destroyed it five days later and killed several more people. On June 27, 1675, a full eclipse of the moon occurred in the New England area,
[21] and various tribes in New England thought it a good omen for attacking the colonists.
[22] Officials from the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies responded quickly to the attacks on Swansea; on June 28, they sent a punitive military expedition that destroyed the Wampanoag town at
Mount Hope in
Bristol, Rhode Island.
The war quickly spread and soon involved the
Podunk and
Nipmuck tribes. During the summer of 1675, the Indians attacked at
Middleborough and
Dartmouth, Massachusetts (July 8),
Mendon, Massachusetts (July 14),
Brookfield, Massachusetts (August 2), and
Lancaster, Massachusetts (August 9). In early September, they attacked
Deerfield,
Hadley, and
Northfield, Massachusetts.
Siege of Brookfield[edit]
Wheeler's Surprise and the ensuing Siege of Brookfield were fought in August 1675 between
Nipmuc Indians under
Muttawmp and the colonists of
Massachusetts Bay under the command of
Thomas Wheeler and
Captain Edward Hutchinson.
[23] The battle consisted of an initial ambush on August 2, 1675 by the Nipmucs against Wheeler's unsuspecting party. Eight men from Wheeler's company died during the ambush: Zechariah Phillips of Boston, Timothy Farlow of Billerica, Edward Coleborn of Chelmsford, Samuel Smedly of Concord, Shadrach Hapgood of Sudbury, Sergeant Eyres, Sergeant Prichard, and Corporal Coy of Brookfield.
[24] Following the ambush was an attack on
Brookfield, Massachusetts, and the consequent besieging of the remains of the colonial force. The Nipmuc forces harried the settlers for two days, until they were driven off by a newly arrived force of colonial soldiers under the command of Major
Simon Willard.
[25] The siege took place at Ayers' Garrison in
West Brookfield, but the location of the initial ambush was a subject of extensive controversy among historians in the late nineteenth century.
[26]
The next colonial expedition was to recover crops from abandoned fields along the
Connecticut River for the coming winter and included almost 100 farmers and militia, plus teamsters to drive the wagons.
Battle of Bloody Brook[edit]
Attack on Springfield[edit]
The Indians
next attacked Springfield, Massachusetts on October 5, 1675, the Connecticut River's largest settlement at the time. They burned to the ground nearly all of Springfield's buildings, including the town's grist mill. Most of the Springfielders who escaped unharmed took cover at the house of
Miles Morgan, a resident who had constructed one of the settlement's few fortified
blockhouses.
[28] An Indian servant who worked for Morgan managed to escape and alerted the Massachusetts Bay troops under the command of
Major Samuel Appleton, who broke through to Springfield and drove off the attackers.
Morgan's sons were famous Indian fighters in the territory. His son Peletiah was killed by Indians in 1675. Springfielders later honored Miles Morgan with a large statue in
Court Square.
[28]
The Great Swamp Fight[edit]
On November 2, Plymouth Colony governor
Josiah Winslow led a combined force of colonial militia against the Narragansett tribe. The Narragansetts had not been directly involved in the war, but they had sheltered many of the Wampanoag fighters, women, and children. Some of their warriors had participated in several Indian attacks. The colonists distrusted the tribe and did not understand the various alliances. As the colonial forces went through Rhode Island, they found and burned several Indian towns which had been abandoned by the Narragansetts, who had retreated to a massive fort in a frozen swamp. The
cold weather in December froze the swamp so that it was relatively easy to traverse. The colonial force found the Narragansett fort on December 19, 1675 near present-day
South Kingstown, Rhode Island; they attacked in a combined force of Plymouth, Massachusetts, and Connecticut militia numbering about 1,000 men, including about 150
Pequots and
Mohican Indian allies. The fierce battle that followed is known as the
Great Swamp Fight. It is believed that the militia killed about 600 Narragansetts. They burned the fort (occupying over 5 acres (20,000 m
2) of land) and destroyed most of the tribe's winter stores.
Most of the Narragansett warriors escaped into the frozen swamp. The colonists lost many of their officers in this assault; about 70 of their men were killed and nearly 150 more wounded. The rest of the colonial assembled forces returned to their homes, lacking supplies for an extended campaign. The nearby towns in Rhode Island provided care for the wounded until they could return to their homes.
[29]
Mohawk intervention[edit]
-
- Jump up ^ Herbert L. Osgood, The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century (1904) 1: 543
- ^ Jump up to: a b Philbrick, Nathaniel (2006). Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War. New York: Penguin.
- Church, Benjamin (1639-1718). "The History of King Philip's War". HathiTrust. Retrieved August 12, 2015.
- Jump up ^ Moon Eclipse calculation [1] Accessed December 22, 2011
- Jump up ^ Leach, Douglas Edward; Flintlock and Tomahawk; p. 46; Parnassus Imprints, East Orleans, Massachusetts; 1954; ISBN 0-940160-55-2
Indian campaign[edit]
Indians attacked and destroyed more settlements throughout the winter of 1675–76 in their effort to annihilate the colonists. Attacks were made at
Andover,
Bridgewater,
Chelmsford,
Groton,
Lancaster,
Marlborough,
Medfield,
Medford,
Portland,
Providence,
Rehoboth,
Scituate,
Seekonk,
Simsbury,
Sudbury,
Suffield,
Warwick,
Weymouth, and
Wrentham, including modern-day
Norfolk and
Plainville. The famous account written and published by
Mary Rowlandson after the war gives a colonial captive's perspective on the conflict.
[34]
Lancaster raid[edit]
The
Lancaster raid in February 1676 was an Indian attack on the community of
Lancaster, Massachusetts. Philip led a force of 1,500
Wampanoag,
Nipmuc, and
Narragansett Indians in a dawn attack on the isolated village, which then included all or part of the neighboring modern communities of
Bolton and
Clinton. They attacked five fortified houses. The house of the Rev. Joseph Rowlandson was set on fire, and most of its occupants were slaughtered—more than 30 people. Rowlandson's wife
Mary was taken prisoner, and afterward wrote a best-selling
captivity narrative of her experiences. Many of the community's other houses were destroyed before the Indians retreated northward.
Plymouth Plantation Campaign[edit]
The spring of 1676 marked the high point for the combined tribes when they attacked Plymouth Plantation on March 12. The town withstood the assault, but the Indians had demonstrated their ability to penetrate deep into colonial territory. They attacked three more settlements;
Longmeadow (near Springfield), Marlborough, and Simsbury were attacked two weeks later. They killed Captain Pierce
[35] and a company of Massachusetts soldiers between Pawtucket and the Blackstone's settlement. Several colonial men were tortured and buried at
Nine Men's Misery in
Cumberland as part of the Indians' ritual torture of enemies. They also burned the settlement of Providence to the ground on March 29. At the same time, a small band of Indians infiltrated and burned part of Springfield while the militia was away.
Colonists defending their settlement (non-contemporary depiction)
The settlements within the modern-day
state of Rhode Island became a literal island colony for a time as the settlements at
Providence and
Warwick were sacked and burned, and the residents were driven to
Newport and
Portsmouth on
Rhode Island. The Connecticut River towns had thousands of acres of cultivated crop land known as the bread basket of New England, but they had to limit their plantings and work in large armed groups for self-protection.
[36]:20 Towns such as
Springfield,
Hatfield,
Hadley, and
Northampton, Massachusetts fortified themselves, reinforced their militias, and held their ground, though attacked several times. The small towns of
Northfield,
Deerfield, and several others were abandoned as the surviving settlers retreated to the larger towns. The towns of the Connecticut colony were largely unharmed in the war, although more than 100 Connecticut militia died in their support of the other colonies.
Attack on Sudbury[edit]
The
Attack on Sudbury was fought in
Sudbury, Massachusetts on April 21, 1676. The town was surprised by Indian raiders at dawn, but security precautions limited the damage to unoccupied homesteads. Reinforcements that arrived from nearby towns were drawn into ambushes by the Indians; Captain Samuel Wadsworth lost his life and half of a 60-man militia in such an ambush. Afterwards, Indians made their way through much of Sudbury, but they were held off by
John Grout and a handful of men until colonial reinforcements arrived to help in the defense.
Battle of Turner's Falls[edit]
On May 18, 1676, Captain William Turner of the Massachusetts Militia and a group of about 150 militia volunteers (mostly minimally trained farmers) attacked an Indian fishing camp at Peskeopscut on the
Connecticut River, now called
Turners Falls, Massachusetts. The colonists killed 100–200 Indians in retaliation for earlier Indian attacks against Deerfield and other settlements and for the colonial losses in the
Battle of Bloody Brook. Turner and nearly 40 of the militia were killed during the return from the falls.
[37]
The colonists defeated an attack at
Hadley on June 12, 1676 with the help of their
Mohegan allies, scattering most of the Indian survivors into
New Hampshire and farther north. Later that month, a force of 250 Indians was routed near
Marlborough, Massachusetts. Combined forces of colonial volunteers and their Indian allies continued to attack, kill, capture, or disperse bands of
Narragansetts,
Nipmucs, and
Wampanoags as they tried to plant crops or return to their traditional locations. The colonists granted amnesty to those who surrendered or who were captured and showed that they had not participated in the conflict. Captives who had participated in attacks on the many settlements were hanged, enslaved, or put to
indentured servitude, depending upon the colony involved.
Battle of Mount Hope[edit]
Metacomet's allies began to desert him, and more than 400 had surrendered to the colonists by early July. Metacomet took refuge in the Assowamset Swamp below Providence, and the colonists formed raiding parties of militia and Indian allies. Metacomet was killed by one of these teams when he was tracked down by Captain
Benjamin Church and Captain
Josiah Standish of the Plymouth Colony militia at Mount Hope in
Bristol, Rhode Island. He was shot and killed by an Indian named
John Alderman on August 12, 1676.
[7]:647 Metacomet's corpse was beheaded, then
drawn and quartered, a traditional treatment of criminals in this time period. His head was displayed in Plymouth for a generation.
[38]
Captain Church and his soldiers captured Pocasset war chief Anawan on August 28, 1676 at
Anawan Rock in
Rehoboth, Massachusetts. He was an old man at the time, and a chief captain of
Metacomet. His capture marked the final event in King Philip's War, as he was also beheaded.
Northern Theater (Maine and Acadia)[edit]
French interests in Maine originated in the fur trade and the sale of fish, both to France. The French colonies in North America were primarily interested in trade and not in creating large cities. Instead, they preferred to convert the Indian population to Catholicism, or else to limit their contact with the Indians to trade. As English presence increased on the southern coast of Maine, the French
Jesuits paid many of the area's tribes for the scalps of Protestant or English settlers, especially the
Abenaki. The Jesuits in charge of coordinating with the tribes were located in a small mission town near
Norridgewock, Maine and led by Jesuit Father
Sébastien Rale. Two other mission towns were established, one based around
Castine, Maine (established by Baron de St. Castin) and one on the
St. Francis River between
New Brunswick and Maine.
The more permanent English settlers moved northward from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, most of them Puritans who were unhappy with the political climate in Massachusetts Bay. Constant friction over many issues became the reason for many Abenaki raids in southern Maine, specifically over the issue of fishing rights for cod. Up until 1675, however, fighting had been limited to minor skirmishes that were more about the destruction of supplies than murder.
What is thought to have been the first action in Maine came when a 25-man militia gathered at
Falmouth, Maine in 1675 and sailed to an Indian village, thought to be a part of the Abenaki, with a single sloop towing shallops. The Indians drove them off and took the shallops from them. Later that month, the tribe crossed the
Saco River in the captured shallops and attacked the settlement of Winter Harbor. Little damage was caused, and similar raids were conducted against
Wells and Falmouth later that year. The ultimate cause leading to war was the ruling by the
Massachusetts General Court in 1676 making it illegal to sell firearms, powder, or rounds to the area's tribes. New England tribes had grown dependent on the musket for hunting, and the English colonists' remaining Indian allies switched to the French side. The French encouraged them to raid the English settlements, due to the tension in Europe at the time.
[39]
Much of the northern fighting was centered around raids meant to destroy property and infrastructure rather than to kill people. The lack of population on both sides meant that large battles were out of the question initially. For the majority of the war, ship combat mostly involved muskets, and the infantry relied more on melee fighting than guns. Later in the war, reinforcements from southern New England introduced modern and well-equipped ships and infantry, turning the tide permanently. This was also the first time that Colonial Rangers were used, acting as guides and scouts for the main party of militia. Much of the fighting was also conducted on the coast in small boats and ships.
Throughout the campaigns, a Wabanaki leader named Mugg Hegone repeatedly attacked towns such as Black Point (
Scarborough), Wells, and
Damariscove, building an Indian navy out of the approximately 40 sloops and a dozen 30-ton ships previously armed by militia. Many of Maine's towns were burned, and most of the population left. Maine's fishing industry was completely destroyed by the Wabanaki flotilla. Records from Salem, Maine reported 20 ketches stolen and destroyed in one raid. Mugg Hegone was killed on his third raid on Black Point. With their leader gone, most of the Indian flotilla broke up and was hunted down by New York privateers and Royal Navy vessels.
[40]
Colonial responses to raids generally failed in both their objectives and accomplishments. Few Indians were lost, and only two French Jesuits were reported killed. The colonists were much more successful in the later campaigns when they had the advantage in weapons. Their most successful ventures were a surprise attack near
Dover, New Hampshire, in which more than 150 Indians were captured, and in the defense of
Pemaquid, Maine from the Indian flotilla. One of the most notorious raids was in August 1679 when Indians attacked a settlement at the
Sheepscot River near
Merrymeeting Bay in Maine. Sir
William Phips rescued local settlers by bringing them on board his vessel, abandoning his cargo of lumber. He was financially ruined when the Indians destroyed the shipyard and his intended cargo, although he was recognized as a hero in Boston.
[41]
By the end of the war, the Northern Campaigns saw approximately 400 settlers die, Maine's fishing economy gone, and the Indians maintaining power in eastern and northern Maine. There is not an accurate account of the number of Indians who died, but it is thought to be between 100 and 300.
[40] The official fighting ended in the northern theater with the
Treaty of Casco (1678). Skirmishes continued until
Father Rale's War, after which the French left Maine
Plymouth Colony[edit]
Plymouth Colony lost close to eight percent of its adult male population and a smaller percentage of women and children to Indian warfare or other causes associated with the war.
[19]:332 Indian losses were much greater, with about 2,000 men killed or who died of injuries in the war, more than 3,000 dying of sickness or starvation, and another 1,000 Indians sold into slavery and transported to other areas, such as the British-controlled islands in the Caribbean. About 2,000 Indians escaped to other tribes to the north or west; they joined continued Indian attacks from those bases well into the next century. Historians estimate that, as a result of King Philip's War, the Indian population of southern New England was reduced by about 40 to 80 percent.
References[edit]
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "King Philip's War". Retrieved 2016-01-08.
- Jump up ^ Faludi, Susan (September 7, 2007). "America's Guardian Myths". The New York Times. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
- Jump up ^ Lepore, Jill (1998). The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
[King Philip] was also known as Metacom, or Pometacom. King Philip may well have been a name that he adopted, as it was common for Natives to take other names. King Philip had on several occasions signed as such and has been referred to by other natives by that name.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Norton, Mary Beth. In the Devil's Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692, New York: Vintage Books, 2003
- Jump up ^ King Philip's War at Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Drake, James David (1999). King Philip's War: Civil War in New England, 1675-1676. The University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 1–15. ISBN 1558492240.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Gould, Philip (Winter 1996). "Reinventing Benjamin Church: Virtue, Citizenship and the History of King Philip's War in Early National America". Journal of the Early Republic. 16. doi:10.2307/3124421.
- Jump up ^ Schultz, Eric B.; Michael J. Touglas (2000). King Philip's War: The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict. W.W. Norton & Co. argues that 600 out of the about 80,000 colonists (1.5%) and 3,000 out of 10,000 Indians (30%) lost their lives in the war.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "1675-King Philip's War". Society of Colonial Wars in the State of Connecticut. 2011. Retrieved 2016-01-08.
- Jump up ^ Lepore (1998), The Name of War (1999) pp 5-7
- Jump up ^ Swope, Cynthia, "Chief Opechancanough of the Powhatan Confederacy"
- Jump up ^ Wick, Steve, "Blood Flows, War Threatens: Violence escalates as a Dutch craftsman is murdered and Indians are massacred", Newsday (archived 2007)
- Jump up ^ "Beaver Wars", Ohio History Central
- Jump up ^ Dick McCracken (December 17, 2004). "Epidemics & Pandemics in U.S. 1616 to Present". rootsweb.com. Archived from the original on January 28, 2006.
- Jump up ^ George Howe, Mount Hope (1958) ISBN 0670490814
- Jump up ^ Exact numbers of Indian allies are unavailable but about 200 warriors are mentioned in different dispatches implying a total population of about 800-1,000.
- Jump up ^ Herbert L. Osgood, The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century (1904) 1: 543
- ^ Jump up to: a b Philbrick, Nathaniel (2006). Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War. New York: Penguin.
- Jump up ^ Church, Benjamin (1639-1718). "The History of King Philip's War". HathiTrust. Retrieved August 12, 2015.
- Jump up ^ Moon Eclipse calculation [1] Accessed December 22, 2011
- Jump up ^ Leach, Douglas Edward; Flintlock and Tomahawk; p. 46; Parnassus Imprints, East Orleans, Massachusetts; 1954; ISBN 0-940160-55-2
- Jump up ^ Schultz and Tougias, pg. 147
- Jump up ^ Captain Thomas Wheeler's Narrative, p. 4: https://archive.org/stream/captainthomaswhe00whee#page/4/mode/2up/search/smedly.
- Jump up ^ Peirce, Ebenezer Weaver (1878). Indian History, Biography and Genealogy: Pertaining to the Good Sachem Massasoit of the Wampanoag Tribe, and His Descendants. North Abington, Mass.: Zerviah Gould Mitchell.
- Jump up ^ Schultz and Tougias, pg. 151
- Jump up ^ Schultz, Eric; Tougias, Michael (1999). King Philip's War. Woodstock, VT: The Countryman Press.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Miles Morgan". Retrieved August 12, 2015.
- Jump up ^ Leach (1954), Flintlock and Tomahawk, pp. 130–132
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Tougias, Michael (2017). King Philip's War: The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict. Countryman Press. ISBN 1581574908.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Drake, James (1999). King Philip's War: Civil War in New England, 1675-1676. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 122. ISBN 1558492240.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Barr, Daniel (2006). Unconquered: The Iroquois League at War in Colonial America. Greenwood. p. 73. ISBN 0275984664.
- Jump up ^ Calloway, Colin (2000). After King Philip's War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England. University Press of New England. ISBN 1611680611.
- Jump up ^ The Narrative of the Captivity and the Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (1682), City University of New York
- Jump up ^ "Capt Michael Pierce's Defeat (1615 - 1676) - Find a Grave Memorial". Retrieved August 12, 2015.
- Jump up ^ Phelps, Noah Amherst (1845). History of Simsbury, Granby, and Canton; from 1642 to 1845. Hartford: Press of Case, Tiffany and Burnham.
- Jump up ^ Leach, Douglas Edward, Flintlock and Tomahawk – New England in King Philip's War, pp. 200–203
- Jump up ^ Schultz, Eric and Michael Tougias. King Philip's War: The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict". The Countryman Press. 1999. p. 290
- Jump up ^ See War of the Spanish Succession.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Duncan, Roger F. Coastal Maine: A Maritime History. Woodstock: Countryman, 2002. Print.
- Jump up ^ Lounsberry, Alice (1941). Sir William Phips. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 23–26.
- Jump up ^ Spady, James O'Neil (Summer 1995). "As if in a Great Darkness: Native American Refugees of the Middle Connecticut River Valley in the Aftermath of King Philip's War: 1677–1697". Historical Journal of Massachusetts. 23 (2): 183–97.
- Jump up ^ "Seacoast NH History - Colonial Era - Cochecho Massacre". Retrieved August 12, 2015.
- Jump up ^ Prins, Harald E. L. (March 1999). "Storm Clouds over Wabanakiak Confederacy Diplomacy Until Dummer's Treaty (1727)". The Atlantic Policy Congress of First Nations Chiefs. Passamaquoddy Tribe at Pleasant Point. Retrieved May 19, 2016.
- Jump up ^ Williamson, William. The History of the State of Maine. Vol. 2. 1832. p. 27
- Jump up ^ Griffiths, E. From Migrant to Acadian. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005. p. 61
- Jump up ^ Campbell, Gary. The Road to Canada: The Grand Communications Route from Saint John to Quebec. Goose Lane Editions and The New Brunswick Heritage Military Project. 2005. p. 21
Primary sources[edit]
- Easton, John, A Relation of the Indian War, by Mr. Easton, of Rhode Island, 1675 (See link below.)
- Eliot, John, "Indian Dialogues": A Study in Cultural Interaction eds. James P. Rhonda and Henry W. Bowden (Greenwood Press, 1980).
- Mather, Increase, A Brief History of the Warr with the Indians in New-England (Boston, 1676; London, 1676).
- ---. Relation of the Troubles Which Have Happened in New England by Reason of the Indians There, from the Year 1614 to the Year 1675 (Kessinger Publishing, [1677] 2003).
- ---. The History of King Philip's War by the Rev. Increase Mather, D.D.; also, a history of the same war, by the Rev. Cotton Mather, D.D.; to which are added an introduction and notes, by Samuel G. Drake(Boston: Samuel G. Drake, 1862).
- ---. "Diary", March 1675–December 1676: Together with extracts from another diary by him, 1674–1687 /With introductions and notes, by Samuel A. Green (Cambridge, Massachusetts: J. Wilson, [1675–76] 1900).
- Rowlandson, Mary, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: with Related Documents (Bedford/St. Martin's Press, 1997).
- Rowlandson, Mary, The Narrative of the Captivity and the Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (1682)online edition
- "Edward Randolph, the Causes and Results of King Philip's War (1675)"; an early account of the war, available online.
Secondary sources[edit]
- Cave, Alfred A. The Pequot War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996).
- Cogley, Richard A. John Eliot's Mission to the Indians before King Philip's War (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999).
- Hall, David. Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990).
- Kawashima, Yasuhide. Igniting King Philip's War: The John Sassamon Murder Trial (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001).
- Leach, Douglas Edward, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip's War; Parnassus Imprints, East Orleans, Massachusetts; 1954; ISBN 0-940160-55-2
- Lepore, Jill. The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Vintage Books, 1999).
- Mandell, Daniel R. King Philip's War: Colonial Expansion, Native Resistance, and the End of Indian Sovereignty (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2010) 176 pages
- Norton, Mary Beth. "In the Devil's Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692" (New York: Vintage Books, 2003)
- Philbrick, Nathaniel. Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War (Penguin USA, 2006) ISBN 0-670-03760-5
- Pulsipher, Jenny Hale. Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005)
- Schultz, Eric B. and Michael J. Tougias, King Philip's War: The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict.' New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 2000.
- Slotkin, Richard and James K. Folsom. So Dreadful a Judgement: Puritan Responses to King Philip's War. (Middletown, CT: Weysleyan University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-8195-5027-2
- Vaughan, Alden T. New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620-1675 (1979)
- Warren, Jason W. Connecticut Unscathed: Victory in the Great Narragansett War, 1675–1676 (2014). excerpt
- Webb, Stephen Saunders. 1676: The End of American Independence (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995).
- Zelner, Kyle F. A Rabble in Arms: Massachusetts Towns and Militiamen during King Philip's War (New York: New York University Press, 2009) excerpt and text search
Further reading[edit]
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